by Giulia Ghidelli
In the past years, the phenomenon of femicide has gained increasing space in the news, together with a progressively growing awareness of systemic gender violence matters, such as the gender pay gap, the #metoo movement against sexual harassment in the entertainment world, and structural discrimination. According to the EU Monitor, one out of three women in the EU has experienced physical and/or sexual violence since the age of 15. In 2015, the UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women and girls, its causes and consequences, Dubravka Simonovic, requested the creation of The Femicide Watch Initiative to collect observations and data on the phenomenon. Along with an increasing wokeness, we are witnessing a controversial wave of scepticism towards the very legitimacy of the term “femicide”. Let’s delve into a more precise definition of the phenomenon. Diana Russel, a feminist scholar and activist, popularised the word “femicide” in the 1970s, defining it as “the killing of women because they are women.” (Seelye, 2020).
The Vienna Declaration on Femicide (2012) proposes the following definition for the phenomenon, synthesised by the European Institute for Gender Equality’s page. “Femicide” consists, among other things, of the “killing of women and girls because of their gender, which can take the form of murder of women as a result of intimate partner violence; torture and misogynist slaying of women; killing of women and girls in the name of “honour”; the targeted killing of women and girls in the context of armed conflict; dowry-related killings of women; killing of women and girls because of their sexual orientation and gender identity; killing of aboriginal and Indigenous women and girls because of their gender; female infanticide and gender-based sex selection foeticide; genital mutilation-related deaths; accusations of witchcraft; and other femicides connected with gangs, organised crime, drug dealers, human trafficking and the proliferation of small arms” (Vienna Declaration on Femicides, 2012; European Institute for Gender Equality, 2017).
The EIGE’s Glossary of definitions of rape, femicide and intimate partner violence provides a statistical definition of “femicide”: “The killing of a woman by an intimate partner and the death of a woman as a result of a practice that is harmful to women. An intimate partner is understood as a former or current spouse or partner, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim.” (EIGE, 2017). Additionally, in the same document, it is possible to find a list of Member States’ legal definitions of the phenomenon. What is immediately noticeable is that most member states do not have a fixed legal definition identified.
The absence, in most of the EU’s member states’ legal systems, of a proper definition of femicide, contributes to the institutional opacity of the phenomenon, and to the difficulty of understanding it and providing structured interventions and effective protection systems for women.
Statistics
Part of the problem is represented by the fact that most EU countries do not report data on gender-based violence accurately or at all in their national statistics, either to the UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime) international database or any other international organisation’s database (Corradi, 2021).
Because of this lack of systematic data, independent organisations such as the European Data Journalism Network and the Mediterranean Institute for Investigative Reporting started manually collecting their data from 20 EU countries. Their research has uncovered that Greece, Slovenia, Germany, and Italy have seen significant increases in femicides since 2019. Specifically, Greece had the highest increase in femicides in 2021 with a growth of 187.5% from 8 incidents in 2020 to 23 registered incidents in 2021 (Louloudis, Morfonios, Zafeiropoulos, 2023).
According to Corradi’s briefing “Femicide, its causes and recent trends: What do we know?” (2021), UNODC estimates that 87,000 women were intentionally killed in 2017, of whom intimate partners or family members killed 58 %, so 50 300. Moreover, according to the rate per 100,000 female population, Africa yields the highest share (3.1), followed by the Americas (1.6), Oceania (1.3), Asia (0.9) and Europe (0.7) (Corradi, 2021:3). These are the most recent global data from reliable sources. As emphasised in the briefing, most of the figures currently considered to be the most reliable are already quite outdated, up to five years old. Calculating more recent figures is challenging or not possible since there are severe gaps in data from specific countries and irregular data input. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has been one of the biggest challenges to data sourcing.
According to Corradi (2012:5), considering the rate per 100,000 of the female population, in Europe, Latvia has the highest rate (4.08), while Finland, Greece and Italy have the lowest (0.33, 0.36 and 0.36, respectively). Data is sourced from the 2019 UNODC dataset.
The dramatic lack of updated and systematic data represents a problem not only from the point of view of legal implementation and effective interventions but also from social and cultural points of view. Violence against women is widely under-reported: less than 40 % of women victims report their cases or seek help (UN Women, 2021). This causes statistical underestimation of forms of violence against women and girls, especially in cases in which public agencies are the data collectors (Corradi, 2021). As emphasised by Corradi (2021) in her report, the widespread under-representation of the phenomenon of femicides contributes to denial and ignorance about the problem itself and its dramatic magnitude, which leads to increased abuse and violence. Another issue emerging from the report is represented by the presence of cultural and bureaucratic obstacles to the registration in official national statistics of women’s violent deaths as “femicides”. This phenomenon contributes to the statistical under-representation and denial of femicides. According to the author, these impediments include: “denial and disinterest in the problem; sheer underestimation of its magnitude which translates into misreporting; or lack of resources and multi-agency coordination towards making gender visible in hard-changing reporting practices (a typical example is lack of communication between local mortuary registers and national statistical agencies).” (Corradi, 2021:4).
In the following tables, you can see the number of female victims of intentional killing per sub-region of Europe (Source: Corradi (2021: 25), UNODC, Homicide Statistics, 2019. * The rate refers to the most recent year available.)
As depicted in the tables, the European countries with the highest rates of female victims of intentional killing per 100,000 female population, with data updated in 2019 at the latest, are Latvia, the Russian Federation, Montenegro and Belgium. The countries with the lowest rates are represented by Ireland, Italy, Greece, Poland and the Netherlands.
Risk factors
The factors contributing to gender-based violence and, therefore, to high rates of femicides, can be identified in social phenomena widespread on a macro scale, such as systemic gender inequality present in societies, common cultural biases and habits, and the lack of emotional and sexual education (Sen, 2022).
According to Corradi (2021:2), these are some elements specific to femicides: women are disproportionately killed by men. UNODC estimated that in 2017 87.000 women were intentionally killed, and approximately 90% of suspects were male (UNODC, 2018). Women are mostly killed in the context of intimate or family relationships. Femicide victims have previously encountered gender-based violence. Most femicide cases occur as the final phase of interpersonal or domestic violence. Women’s social vulnerability, legal inequality, and impaired access to education, leading to gender inequality, stereotypes and social discrimination, are drivers of gender-based violence and femicide. Since these cultural and social factors can go through significant variation on a long-term basis, the rate at which women are killed tends to be more stable than that of men (UNODC, 2018). Moreover, according to Stamatel (2014), the number of women killed increases as the overall rate of homicides decreases. Since the phenomenon of femicides is context- and gender-specific, policies that effectively decrease male-to-male killing do not affect femicide. Thus, the number of femicides remains stable, or increases (Stamatel, 2014).
It is important to stress the relevance of societal responsibilities in dealing with the phenomenon of femicide. Corradi (2021) makes a comparison based on gender in exposure to violence: “While the causes of male victimisation are mostly linked to levels of socio-economic development and are facilitated by alcohol as well as drug abuse, female victimisation is more closely linked with the structural characteristics of societies, such as gender roles and status, as well as gender inequality. Women continue to bear the heaviest burden of victimisation because of gender stereotypes and inequality.” (2021: 2).
Phenomena such as poverty, legal protection gaps and gender inequality are strongly connected and mutually influenced. According to the EU Monitor, “Most EU countries have laws tackling violence against someone because of gender or sexual orientation, but the lack of a common definition of gender-based violence and common rules to address the issue helps to perpetuate the problem. That is why the European Parliament has repeatedly called for new EU legislation on this. Women and girls are the main victims, but it can also affect men. LGBTIQ+ people are also often targeted. It has negative consequences at the individual level as well as within the family, community and at an economic level.” Moreover, according to The World Bank, gender inequality is a widespread problem around the world, determining financial constraints for women which play an important role in their exposure to abuse and violence. “In 59 countries, there are no laws against sexual harassment at work. Myanmar, Uzbekistan and Armenia are among 46 countries where there is no legal protection against domestic violence. […] Countries whose laws discriminate against women and do not promote gender equality suffer economically. […] The link between the fight against poverty and gender equality is strong.” (The World Bank, 2015, online opinion piece related to the Women, Business and the Law 2016 report).
Notably, in countries with extremely traditional social systems, social phenomena contributing to women’s empowerment, such as refusing traditional gender roles, entering the job market, and divorce, can represent risk factors for femicides (Stamatel, 2014). According to the same study, political and legal reforms regarding women’s rights and collective status represent a protective factor.
Moreover, Corradi (2021) highlights an interesting aspect: the 2014 European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights survey showed that high rates of violence against women and girls (VAWG) still exist in Northern European countries, even if they present the highest gender equality indices worldwide. This apparent paradox is addressed by the author by stating that, “While gender equality is important, it does not explain VAWG straightforwardly (Ivert et al., 2019)” (2021:10). Gender-based violence is intertwined with several factors existing on individual and interpersonal levels, such as physical and sexual abuse in childhood; education; drinking behaviour patterns; and the quality of neighbourhood social ties (Corradi, 2021:10; Ivert, et al., 2019).
What’s new in the implementation of protection against gender-based violence in the EU
According to the 2024 report on gender equality in the EU by the European Commission, “On 6 February 2024, a provisional political agreement was reached on the Commission proposal for a Directive on combating violence against women and domestic violence. The Directive is a milestone: the first comprehensive legal instrument at the EU level to tackle violence against women and domestic violence.” (2024: 4). The report also gives an outline of the current domestic legislation and policies in the European Union to fight gender-based violence. Here are some of the most relevant examples.
Lithuania has adopted a new national law on Protection against Domestic Violence, which was valid from 1 July 2023. This law will implement measures improving protection for survivors of domestic violence, and an inter-institutional cooperation mechanism at the national and local level between the police, specialised assistance centres, child protection services, hospitals, representatives of municipalities, and other institutions.
The parliament in the Netherlands voted for a new law on sexual offences in June. With this law, the government aims to protect victims of sexual crimes better. The law clarifies what constitutes an offence and expands the list of sexually transgressive behaviour. Moreover, from July the 1st 2024, The Netherlands will officially and legally recognise that sex without consent is rape, becoming the 17th country out of 31 European states analysed by Amnesty International. The Dutch Senate removed the requirement that rape must involve physical force, threat or coercion. The process to adopt this law was facilitated by Amnesty International Netherlands.
Finland approved a new legislation on sex crimes that came into force on 1 January 2023. Notably, the law introduces a wider definition of rape that no longer requires the use of violence or threat of violence and the narrative of a defenceless victim. According to the new law, any non-consensual sex act will be considered rape.
In Bulgaria, the Parliament has approved an amendment to the Criminal Code that provides for harder penalties for physical violence.
Following a state investigation in Malta into the femicide of Bernice Cassar, killed by her partner while awaiting police action on a protection order breach, the Maltese government has put into practice several recommendations from the inquiry report. Malta set up its first domestic violence hub on 29 November 2023, after the introduction of the third national strategy on gender-based violence and domestic violence (2023-2028).
In Belgium, on 29 June 2023, the Parliament approved a new law, known as “the Stop Femicide Law”. This is not a criminal law but a framework law providing a set of tools for monitoring and prevention of femicides. Belgium thus becomes the first European country to adopt a comprehensive legal framework to prevent and combat this phenomenon.
Finally, Poland approved the “Anti-Violence Act 2.0” on 15 August 2023, with amendments to strengthen existing legislation to prevent domestic violence. The measures extend protection to include those who have endured economic violence and cyber-violence. The term “family violence” was replaced with “domestic violence” and the Act stipulates that minors are to be treated as victims when they witness violence.
Prevention and further actions: what else can be done?
The Centre for Research & Education on Violence Against Women & Children (CREVAWC) addresses the issue with the following 4 main fields of action to end femicides on GBV Learning Network: enrich data and documentation, enhance prevention, raise awareness, and tackle the legal protection gap with legislative and policy reform.
UN Women proposes, in its online piece “Take action: 10 ways you can help end violence against women”, their interpretation of the most important elements to prevent and fight gender-based violence, and they could be considered an anti-femicide manifesto:
- Listen to and believe survivors;
- Teach the next generation and learn from them;
- Call for responses and services fit for purpose;
- Understand consent;
- Learn the signs of abuse and how you can help;
- Start a conversation;
- Stand against rape culture;
- Fund women’s organizations;
- Hold each other accountable;
- Know the data and demand more of it.
Last but not least, the European Commission’s 2024 report on gender equality in the EU emphasises, among other elements, different factors that can contribute to a positive transformation towards enhanced gender equality. The report highlights the importance of building a gender-equal economy, closing the gender care gap, addressing the gender pay and pension gaps, involving more women in political decision-making, and the diffusion of gender mainstreaming as a strategic approach to involve a gender lens “into every aspect of policy, planning, and decision-making processes. Gender mainstreaming makes gender equality an integral part of broad or sectoral policies, legislative initiatives or funding programmes” (2024:53), and intersectionality. It is crucial to mention that intersectionality is especially important, since women of colour, women with a migrant or asylum background, women with disabilities, trans and queer women, and women part of minorities, are significantly more likely to suffer from compounded discrimination than their cis-white counterparts.
Conclusions
The takeaway from the past years is quite self-evident: even if we are witnessing positive changes in legislation and policies in the EU, we still have plenty of work ahead of us. As emphasised by the 2024 report on gender equality in the EU, we see a dramatic ideological backlash represented by the growth of anti-feminist movements in Europe and globally. As shown in the 2023 UN Gender Social Norms Index, which quantifies prejudices and biases against women in the dimensions of political, educational, economic and physical integrity, almost 90% of those surveyed hold fundamental biases against women.
How can we conclude this reflection? As individuals, professionals and scholars, we must keep fighting for a more just and equal world with our own tools, such as research-based solutions, the right to vote, civil disobedience, collective action, information, education, and sisterhood.
References and sources
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Centre for Research & Education on Violence Against Women & Children (CREVAWC), Actions to end femicides, online document on GBV Learning Network, https://gbvlearningnetwork.ca/our-work/infographics/actionstoend/Actions-to-End-FemicidePLAIN-TEXT.pdf
EIGE (2023) Hidden in plain sight: improving legal responses for ‘invisible’ victims of femicide, online article published on the 7 February 2023, https://eige.europa.eu/newsroom/news/hidden-plain-sight-improving-legal-responses-invisible-victims-femicide?language_content_entity=en
European Commission (2024) 2024 report on gender equality in the EU, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2024 © European Union, 2024, https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/965ed6c9-3983-4299-8581-046bf0735702_en?filename=2024%20Report%20on%20Gender%20Equality%20in%20the%20EU_coming%20soon.pdf
European Institute for Gender Equality (2017). Glossary of definitions of rape, femicide and intimate partner violence, https://eige.europa.eu/publications-resources/thesaurus/terms/1192?language_content_entity=en
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