by Zhenghao Lin
When the Chinese Ministry of Education announced that actions would be taken to cultivate students’ “masculinity” (MOE, 2021), some viewed it as the government’s clear and strong stance in supporting the “end of the effeminizing trend in society” (Xinhua, 2018). The plan, which aims to make students more “masculine” by moderately improving physical education teaching methods and formats, was seen as a response to growing concerns that the new generation of men might not be “masculine” enough to handle future responsibilities. This concern over a so-called “masculinity crisis” is not unique to China; societies around the world are eager to restore “masculinity.” Gallup polling data shows that since Trump was elected president in 2016, young women have leaned more significantly liberal compared to men, an ideological gap that helped Trump win again in 2024. Trump seized on public discontent and capitalized on male frustration, doubling down on masculinity in the final weeks of the campaign. He reposted a warning on his social media platform, Truth Social, claiming that “masculinity is under attack.” The election results suggested that Trump’s strategy of promising to restore masculinity worked. His support among 18–29-year-old men rose from 36% in 2020 to 43% in 2024, with an overall 10-point gender gap (CAWP, 2024). Whether in the Western or Eastern world, men appear to be experiencing a “crisis” that challenges their masculinity and identity. But what exactly does masculinity mean? Are we truly in a crisis, or is this just fear-mongering?
What is Masculinity?
Let’s start with the definition of masculinity. To do so, we must distinguish between sex and gender. Sex is a biological concept—based on genes, chromosomes, hormones, sexual characteristics, etc.—but even within this domain, there is a possibility of falling out of the binary division.. Gender, in contrast, is a social construct, and masculinity stems from it. More precisely, masculinity refers to a set of ideas, behaviors, and roles that society generally expects from men (Eagly, 1983; Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). Across many cultures, masculinity has historically been associated with traits like strength, competitiveness, emotional control, and the role of family provider. Men are often encouraged to avoid anything considered “feminine” and to display power, independence, and toughness.
However, these ideas are not universal. Gender norms vary across cultures and contexts, and even within a culture, notions of masculinity shift over time (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005; Itulua-Abumere, 2013). For instance, from a historical perspective, Chinese masculinity has been understood through the dual concepts of wen (literary) and wu (martial), a theoretical framework proposed by Kam Louie (2002). Unlike the West, ancient Chinese society valued literary cultivation, moral refinement, and scholastic achievement alongside martial strength and physical courage. That said, some themes remain relatively consistent across time and place: masculinity is often associated with strength, control, and a sense of responsibility. This continuity is visible in contemporary China, where there is growing public discourse about the need for more “physical toughness” among boys—a reflection of changing societal concerns about masculinity in a modern context.
Currently, we hear concerns about a “masculinity crisis”—claims that indoor education doesn’t suit boys’ nature, that boys perform worse than girls academically, or that boys wearing makeup is unacceptable since they believe that it is exclusively for women. These concerns revolve around the fear that men are no longer masculine enough. But before we panic, we should ask: What happens when a man doesn’t—or can’t—live up to these tough expectations?
The Pressure to Prove Masculinity
One fun fact about masculinity is that it is seen as a status that is not guaranteed. A man’s masculinity begins to be expected the moment he engages with society; However, a man cannot have it until he can prove it (Connell, 2005). In many societies, men feel they have to earn and repeatedly prove their masculinity through actions, attitudes, and sometimes displays of strength or stoicism, especially under witness. Psychologists call this “fragile masculinity” (Bosson, 2013), meaning masculinity feels like something that can be lost or challenged at any time — the only way to keep a man’s masculinity is to prove it constantly and publicly.
Unfortunately (for men), since it is easy to get challenged, we should pay more attention to the follow-up: what would happen if you, as a man, “lost” your masculinity? When a man’s masculinity is questioned — whether by a person or by a situation that makes him feel less “manly” — it leads to various consequences. For instance, it can create stress, shame, and anxiety (Vescio et al., 2021), and restoring his masculinity is a way out. This desire can lead to men acting out in ways that reinforce traditional male roles, like displaying aggression or emphasizing their power, and it’s almost as if masculinity is a test that never ends.
Masculinity Threats: Why They Matter
So, what kinds of experiences or situations threaten masculinity? A masculinity threat occurs when something undermines a man’s sense of being masculine. This can arise from personal failures, changing cultural norms, critical comments, or interactions with a more dominant or high-status outgroup.
A common example involves male subordinates working under female supervisors. For some men, this scenario challenges traditional gender expectations and can trigger feelings of insecurity or shame (Vescio et al., 2021). In response, they may attempt to restore their masculinity by reacting with anger, aggression, or resistance to change. These defensive responses are not just personal reactions—they reflect broader social dynamics and illustrate how fragile masculinity can shape behavior in everyday situations.
The Expectancy-Discrepancy-Threat Model: Why Some Men Feel More Pressure
To understand when and why masculinity feels threatened, as well as the men’s responses towards threats to their masculinity, researchers have developed various kinds of theories. Recently, psychologist Stanaland and his colleagues proposed the Expectancy-Discrepancy-Threat Model. This model synthesizes previous research and offers a detailed psychological framework to explain men’s responses when their masculinity is challenged. At the core of the model is the role of external expectations, which drive a man’s motivation to be masculine. This motivation can be:
Intrinsic: “I want to be masculine”
Extrinsic: “I should be masculine”
When a masculinity threat occurs, these different types of motivation lead to different emotional and behavioral outcomes. For example, intrinsic motivation often leads to internalized responses such as anxiety, while extrinsic motivation is more likely to result in externalized behaviors like aggression. The model emphasizes the intersection of societal expectations, men’s self-perceptions, and masculinity threats.
The model breaks down into three components:
Expectancy: This reflects society’s strict rules around what it means to “be a man.” These expectations create a rigid framework, so men feel they must meet these standards to be respected.
Discrepancy: When a man realizes he isn’t meeting these standards (or feels he’s falling short), he experiences a gap between who he is and who he’s “supposed” to be. This can create tension and push him to act in ways that prove his masculinity.
Threat: Finally, when a man feels this tension, he may react to protect his sense of masculinity. If he is motivated by outside pressure to feel “should be more masculine,” he might express this as anger, aggression, or even hostility toward things perceived as unmanly.
This model helps explain why, in many cultures, men go to great lengths to demonstrate toughness, control, or success, especially when they feel their masculinity is being tested. However, this model still lacks significant empirical support, calling for more research and cross-cultural investigation. In my master’s thesis, I conducted an experimental study applying this model to the Chinese male population. The results indicated that, when faced with masculinity threats, Chinese men did not exhibit intensified responses, suggesting that the concept of masculinity and how men react to threats vary across cultures. This highlights the need to maintain an open, evolving perspective on masculinity and gender more broadly.
Why It Matters to All of Us
The worry about masculinity isn’t just about men’s image; it’s about how societies define strength, responsibility, and worth. When men feel pressured to live up to a narrow definition of masculinity, it can impact their well-being and how they interact with outgroups. Studies suggest that men who feel their masculinity is threatened often struggle with self-esteem, experience more stress, and may even behave aggressively to restore their image (Kinney et al., 2001; Moore & Stuart, 2004; Bosson et al., 2009). Let us face the fact that in the current world, men still hold dominant social positions. Thus, how men understand and perform masculinity has far-reaching implications—not just for themselves, but for society as a whole.
Our understanding of masculinity is evolving. The real crisis isn’t that men are becoming “less masculine” but that masculinity itself feels so fragile. The need to constantly prove one’s masculinity creates unnecessary pressure, keeping men from freely expressing their full range of emotions and identities. This is an ongoing global issue, as the rigid expectations surrounding masculinity resonate across different cultures, including places like China, where traditional views are deeply rooted.
As we continue to explore masculinity, it’s essential to ask if the pressure to “be a man” in a certain way is helping or harming society. The answers might lead to a healthier, more flexible understanding of what it means to be a man in today’s world.
References:
MOE [Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. (2021, February 3). 培养“阳刚之气”并无男女之分. Retrieved January 25, 2024, from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/s5148/202102/t20210203_512367.html
Xinhua. (2018, September 6). “娘炮”之风当休矣! https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/fTC6ITOlvyyHifbIXrcobw
Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities. Routledge.
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639
Eagly, A. H. (1983). Gender and Social Influence. American Psychologist.
Itulua-Abumere, F. & University of Roehampton, Alumna;Daytona Global Enterprise Limited;VGC, Ajah.Lagos. Nigeria. (2013). Understanding Men and Masculinity in Modern Society. Open Journal of Social Science Research, 1(2), 42. https://doi.org/10.12966/ojssr.05.05.2013
Anatomy of the women’s vote in the 2024 presidential election – American Communities Project. (n.d.). https://www.americancommunities.org/anatomy-of-the-womens-vote-in-the-2024-presidential-election/?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Stanaland, A., Gaither, S., & Gassman-Pines, A. (n.d.). When Is Masculinity “Fragile”? An Expectancy-Discrepancy-Threat Model of Masculine Identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review.
Vescio, T. K., Schermerhorn, N. E. C., Gallegos, J. M., & Laubach, M. L. (2021). The affective consequences of threats to masculinity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, 104195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104195
Kinney, T. A., Smith, B. A., & Donzella, B. (2001). The influence of sex, gender, self-discrepancies, and self-awareness on anger and verbal aggressiveness among US college students. The Journal of Social Psychology, 141(2), 245-275.
Song, G., & Hird, D. (2014). Men and Masculinities in Contemporary China. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004264915
Moore, T. M., & Stuart, G. L. (2004). Effects of Masculine Gender Role Stress on Men’s Cognitive, Affective, Physiological, and Aggressive Responses to Intimate Conflict Situations. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5(2), 132–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.5.2.132
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